Graduate Handbook
Introduction
by George Hart, Dan Philippon, and Gioia Woods
Revised and updated by Melissa Goldthwaite
Contents
Why Graduate Study in Literature and Environment?
What Does it Mean to Study Literature and Environment?
Guides to Environmental Careers
Welcome
That you are reading this handbook probably means two things: you care about the environment, and you care about literature. Perhaps somewhere along the line you picked up a work of literature, started reading, and said, "Hey, this book has trees in it!" Perhaps it was Walden. Or A Sand County Almanac. Or Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. Whatever the case, you now think you may be able to pursue both interests at once. You can be a professor and save the earth.
We want to encourage that enthusiasm, but we also want to provide some straightforward information about the state of the profession so you can make an informed decision about graduate school--not only where you should attend, but also whether you should attend at all. You won't find any glossy photos or jazzy catalog copy in here, but we do hope you'll find some useful information and practical suggestions that make planning for your future a little easier.
Before you begin, we encourage you to examine the Guides to Graduate Study listed at the end of this introduction. These guides contain important information on admission and financial aid procedures not contained in this handbook. We have tried to limit our discussion to the study of literature and environment, and therefore have not included more general information about graduate education.
Why Graduate Study in Literature and Environment?
We all know by now that the earth is facing its most serious challenge yet: as a species we are rapidly destroying the fabric of life. In The Diversity of Life, Harvard entomologist Edward O. Wilson estimates that we are losing 27,000 species per year, 74 a day, 3 every hour. At current rates, he suggests, 20 percent of existing species will become extinct in the next 30 years, precipitating "the sixth great extinction spasm" in evolutionary history -- the one that may finally destroy the fabric of life forever.
The logical question any responsible human would ask is: "what can I do -- what should I do -- to stop this destruction?" One answer some of us have given, surprisingly perhaps, is: "study literature." Literature (especially the literature of nature) puts us in contact with writers and thinkers and philosophers, with scientists and prophets and pilgrims, all of whom have sought to understand their role in the universe and come to terms with their place in the natural world. As we will see, the meaning of "literature" and "literary study" has undergone a profound change recently, but it is nevertheless worth remembering that the word "text" comes from the Latin texere, to weave or construct, and thus the overall project of literary studies may in one sense be seen as part of an effort to re-weave the fabric of life, to reconstruct (rather than deconstruct) our world.
Yet one may rightly ask, "What effect does literary study have upon the environment? What difference will it make to the world if I spend five years of my life squirreled away in some library carrel, examining the ecological rhetoric of Emerson's essays?" It's a fair question, one many of us have yet to answer fully, yet one we have also come to terms with in our own individual ways. At the root of the question is the issue of cultural change: what it is, how it happens, and how you can make it occur in the way you desire.
More than anything else, belief that studying, teaching, and writing about the literature of nature can somehow effect social change involves a belief that no firm distinction exists between what occurs "inside" academia and what occurs "outside." On the one hand, this means that being an academic need not prevent you from participating in protest marches, joining environmental groups, renovating trail shelters, or volunteering at the recycling center (although it might make doing these things more difficult, as we will soon see). On the other hand, it means that "traditional" academic study can also have a visible impact upon the world. Not only may intellectual inquiry change your belief system (and, consequently, your behavior) but it can also change the belief system of others -- perhaps as a result of your teaching or your writing. And without this faith in the power of individuals and groups to effect cultural change, through both citizen participation and education, we are all surely lost, as is our environment.
The Academic Job Market
Noble as such sentiments are, however, they need to be qualified by a realistic appraisal of the academic job market. It becomes difficult to teach others about environmental concern, for instance, if you yourself can't find a job as a teacher. Unfortunately, the longer you talk to a graduate student in literature, the more one refrain will emerge: the academic job market is awful. According to recent MLA Committee Reports, "the MLA's latest job-placement surveys suggest that if present employment patterns continue fewer than half the seven or eight thousand graduate students likely to earn PhDs in English and foreign languages between 1996 and 2000 can expect to obtain full-time tenure-track positions within a year of receiving their degrees." According to this same report, between 1990 and 1995, 4,727 graduate students earned PhDs in English, and placement surveys suggest that in the same period only 2,175 PhDs in English found full-time tenure-track positions in the year they recieved their degree.
The reasons for this downturn are complicated but enlightening. Although college enrollments are expected to rise in many states due to a growing college age population and an increasing number of nontraditional students wanting higher education, the economic recession of the late 1980s and early 1990s has forced many colleges and universities to make drastic cuts. According to a study commissioned by the American Council on Education, 26 percent of public four-year institutions reduced their faculty size in 1991-92, compared with 20 percent of public two-year colleges and 17 percent of private institutions (El-Khawas 6, 29). Almost half the public four-year institutions imposed hiring freezes, almost half reduced the number of classes offered, and more than half increased the size of introductory classes (El-Khawas 21).
Private colleges and universities have been less affected by the recession than public institutions, and the degree of cuts varies from school to school and from region to region, but it remains to be seen if the improved economic climate will alter this institutional restraint or not. Some have argued that public colleges and universities will retain the enrollment limits imposed during the recession while others suggest that these limits will be altered, as public pressure for increased access to higher education forces states to allocate more money for education. Pressure for change may also come from currently enrolled students upset with their inability to register for the courses they desire and from the high level of retirements expected by the end of the decade (Huber 60-61). Yet even if the next few years see some change in the number of positions advertised, any change is likely to be modest, with colleges and universities wary to act too quickly in still uncertain economic circumstances.
In the meantime, the current situation creates enormous pressure for all involved -- even for those few lucky souls who do manage to land jobs. For those admitted into the sacred realm of the "tenure-track, " increased teaching loads due to institutional belt-tightening mean less time for research. And since research weighs heavily in tenure decisions (especially at the more competitive schools), for many the already-elusive goal of tenure beomes even more difficult to attain (Horwitz A1). For adjunct professors -- who now make up 38 percent of faculty in the United States -- the prospect looks even bleaker. Often forced by economic necessity to teach courses at a number of different schools at once, adjuncts make little money, have little job security, and garner few if any benefits. Their days spent commuting and their nights spent grading, they have next to no time to publish, and thus little chance to advance (Kean 49-50).
If these facts seem disheartening, they should. The situation is not good -- and hasn't been for some time. Yet compared to the challenges facing the global environment, the challenges of the job market appear much less overwhelming. Think of it this way: if you have enough faith in the human condition to believe that individual and community action can make a difference in the world (and you should -- think of Lois Gibbs and the Citizens Clearinghouse for Hazardous Waste), then conquering the job market can't be all that bad!
What Does it Mean to Study Literature and Environment?
Studying literature and environment is simultaneously an old and a new pursuit in literary studies. Scholars of Romantic literature and American Studies have always been interested in the constructions and representations of nature in literary history. The increasing awareness of environmental issues in the sixties, however, and the widespread consciousness-raising and political activism that resulted, not only created a demand for nature writing among readers but also created an atmosphere more conducive to environmental studies in the university. The decades since have seen an increasing number of studies devoted to the relationship of literature and environment. The more recent of these not only incorporate critical attitudes from literary theory, but also employ the knowledge and methods of fields not usually associated with literary studies, such as environmental history, biology, and geography.
Although the interdisciplinary quality of these studies reflects their "ecological" nature, the university as an institution is patterned after a mechanistic rather than organic model, and its history of compartmentalization is an artifact of industrial development. As a result, interdisciplinarity continues to encounter resistance in many humanities programs. Fortunately, though, many of these programs are reconsidering the position of "literary studies" in the university, and the result of these debates may have a positive effect on hiring practices in the future. The standard organization of literature departments by historical period and genre, while still the norm, is being contested by scholars for whom a more fruitful approach is to engage the discourse surrounding literature in addition to the literary works themselves. Such discourse studies cross historical categories -- a scholar might, for instance, specialize in colonial and gender discourses in English literature from the "early modern" period to the eighteenth century, rather than be categorized as a "Renaissance scholar" -- and such studies often look beyond literary texts to the broader category of culture.
A 1992 publication by the Modern Language Association evokes the state of the profession in its title: Redrawing the Boundaries: The Transformation of English and American Literary Studies. As anyone interested in ecology knows, boundaries are always relative terms, always to some degree porous, and so an informed approach and a healthy skepticism may help ecologically-oriented scholars find their way among these shifting lines. Since graduate school in literary studies is usually a segue into an academic career, a certain amount of self-interest and diplomacy may make these new boundaries seem more like openings than obstacles. For example, scholarship on British and continental nature writing might find a niche in colonial and postcolonial discourse studies by focusing on travel writing, exploration narratives, and ethnography. Because interdisciplinary studies still encounter resistance from some corners, though, the more wide-ranging the interdisciplinarity the more likely the study will be discounted as not "literary" enough. Although most scholars accept some psychological, historical, or philosophical approaches to literature, studies which reach too far outside of the humanities -- say, to biology -- may stretch the limits of acceptability. As yet, the boundaries may not be "redrawn" that far.
Exploring Options
Graduate School
Before you make decisions about what type of graduate institution (if any) you wish to enter, consider your goals. Do you want to be a environmental activist? Do you want to teach in a primary or secondary school? Do you want to be a teacher in a two-year college? Are you interested in becoming a creative writer? A researcher/teacher in a four-year college or university?
Determining the amount of time and money you are willing to spend in school will help make your decision. Before you begin soliciting specific information from schools, ask yourself the following questions. Should I pursue an MA or a PhD? Which academic department will I enter? Will I go to school full- or part-time? To which schools will I apply? To which departments? How many applications should I submit? How will I pay for graduate school? How will I apply for financial aid? A teaching fellowship?
Activism
Many scholars are also activists, but you don't have to go to graduate school to become an activist. If you feel called to environmental activism, you may want to consider other options besides graduate school. Many environmental organizations offer internships that may help you make a career of environmentalism. You may be interested in writing for an environmental organization, for instance, or working as a lobbyist. Check the Guides to Environmental Careers at the end of the Introduction.
Elementary or High School Teaching
Primary and secondary school teachers must obtain teaching credentials determined by their state of residence. For more information, check with an advisor in your college's or university's Education Department. If you are primarily interested in educating, you may want to consider elementary or secondary teaching certification.
A Master's Degree
An MA can take one to three years to complete. Some schools require a final project or thesis; many schools now administer a set of comprehensive exams to test your knowledge. Some departments allow students to choose between the two, while other departments demand both. Most Master's programs also require proficiency in one foreign language, usually equivalent to two full years of college-level instruction.
When accompanied by the proper certification, an MA will qualify you to teach at the high school level. Although a Master's degree will sometimes be sufficient to prepare you for positions at community and junior colleges, an increasing number of two-year colleges are now demanding applicants with PhDs.
A Master's of Fine Arts
An MFA has much in common with an MA. The focus, however, is on creative writing, and the MFA, unlike the MA, is a terminal degree. Often, a candidate who wishes to enter graduate school in an MFA program will have to supply writing samples to demonstrate his or her potential as a creative writer. Be aware that many institutions do not offer MFAs. Thoroughly investigate departments to which you apply!
Some colleges and universities hire people with MFAs to teach writing classes and lead writing workshops. These jobs often are "writer in residence" positions, and require not only an MFA, but a substantial amount of published work.
A PhD
A PhD is required for a college or university career in teaching (except for those few positions available to MFAs), but a PhD does not guarantee a career in academia. If you are thinking about pursuing a PhD, remember that competitive candidates for academic jobs not only have earned the "terminal degree," but have also participated in numerous academic organizations, have published papers, and have presented work at conferences.
A PhD takes anywhere from four to seven years after the Master's to complete. The usual requirements for a PhD in the humanities include additional course work after the MA, proficiency in two languages, and the successful completion of comprehensive exams. To complete a PhD, you must write and defend a dissertation.
Most departments award limited teaching fellowships or research assistantships. Not only do these positions help minimize the cost of tuition, they provide working experience which will make you a more attractive job candidate down the road.
The Guides to Graduate Study at the end of the Introduction are valuable research tools for those considering graduate study.
Financial Aid
Although higher education is a very expensive venture almost any way you approach it, colleges and universities provide many types of financial aid, from loans to grants to scholarships. For concise information about financial aid and application requirements, refer to the Guides to Graduate Study listed at the end of the Introduction.
Works Cited
El-Khawas, Elaine. Campus Trends, 1992. Higher Education Panel Report 82. Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1992.
Greenblatt, Stephen, and Giles Gunn. Redrawing the Boundaries: The Transformation of English and American Literary Studies. New York: MLA, 1992.
Horwitz, Tony. "Young Professors Find Life in Academia Isn't What It Used to Be." Wall Street Journal 15 Feb. 1994: A1+.
Huber, Bettina J. "The Changing Job Market." Profession 92. New York: MLA, 1992. 59-73.
Kean, Patricia. "Temps Perdus: The Woes of the Part-Time Professoriate." Lingua Franca 4.3 (March/April 1994): 49-53.
"Latest Job Information List Figures Available." MLA Newsletter 26.1 (Spring 1994): 1.
"The MLA's 1991-92 Survey of PhD Placement: Major Findings." MLA Newsletter 26.2 (Summer 1994): 1-2.
Wilson, Edward O. The Diversity of Life. Cambridge: Harvard, 1992.
Guides to Graduate Study
Asher, Donald. Graduate Admissions Essays: What Works, What Doesn't, and Why. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 1991.
Council of Graduate Schools. Graduate School and You: A Guide for Prospective Graduate Students. Washington, DC: Council of Graduate Schools, 1989.
Green, Howard, and Robert Minton. Beyond the Ivy Wall: 10 Essential Steps to Graduate School Admission. Boston: Little Brown, 1989.
Peters, Robert L. Getting What You Came For: The Smart Student's Guide to Earning a Master's or a Ph.D. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1992.
Peterson's Guides. Education for the Earth: The College Guide for Careers in the Environment. 2nd ed. Princeton, NJ: Peterson's Guides, 1994.
Peterson's Guides. Peterson's Guide to Graduate and Professional Programs: An Overview 1994. 28th ed. Princeton, NJ: Peterson's Guides, 1993.
Showalter, English. A Career Guide for PhDs and PhD Candidates in English and Foreign Languages. New York: MLA, 1985.
Sternberg, David. How to Complete and Survive a Doctoral Dissertation. New York: St. Martin's, 1981.
Weinstein, Miriam, ed. Making a Difference College Guide: Education for a Better World. San Anselmo, CA: Sage, 1993.
Guides to the Job Search
Bugliani, Ann. "The MLA Job Interview: What Candidates Should Know." ADFL Bulletin 24.1 (1992): 38-39.
Curren, Erik D. "No Openings at this Time: Job Market Collpase and Graduate Education." Profession 94. New York: MLA, 1994. 57-61.
Deneef, A. Leigh, Crauford D. Goodwin, and Ellen Stern McCrate, eds. The Academic's Handbook. Durham: Duke UP, 1988.
Showalter, English. A Career Guide for PhDs and PhD Candidates in English and Foreign Languages. New York: MLA, 1985.
Thomas, Trudelle. "Demystifying the Job Search: A Guide for Candidates." CCCC 40 (1989): 312-27.
Guides to Environmental Careers
Basta, Nicholas. The Environmental Career Guide: Job Opportunities with the Earth in Mind. New York: Wiley, 1991.
Cohn, Susan. Green at Work: Finding a Business Career that Works for the Environment. Washington, DC: Island, 1992.
Environmental Careers Organization. The New Complete Guide to Environmental Careers. Washington, DC: Island, 1993.
Kinney, Jane, and Michael Fasulo. Careers for Environmental Types and Others Who Respect the Earth. Lincolnwood, IL: VGM Career Horizons, 1993.
McMillan, Bill. Wilderness U.: Opportunities for Outdoor Education in the U.S. and Abroad. Chicago: Chicago Review, 1992.
Shenk, Ellen. Outdoor Careers: Exploring Occupations in Outdoor Fields. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1992.
If you are seeking an environmental career, also note the following two periodicals:
Environmental Opportunities (monthly); Sanford Berry, ed.; Box 4957; Arcata, CA 95521. Phone: 707-839-4640. Fax: 707-822-7727. Cost: $44.00 per year.
The Job Seeker (bi-monthly); Becky Potter, ed.; Rt. 2, Box 16; Warrens, WI 54666. Phone: 608-378-4920. Cost: $60.00 per year.
An additional resource is The Environmental Careers Organization; 286 Congress Street; Boston, MA 02210-1009.
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